Luke 15:1-7 | The Rejoicing Shepherd

Luke 15:1–7 In my opinion, the Bible editors have unfortunately over time misnamed the three parables that make up Luke 15. Many Bible editors will have these three parables named in one form or another as the “Parable of the Lost Sheep” (Luke 15:1-7), “Parable of the Lost Coin” (Luke 15:8-10), and “Parable of the Lost Son” or “The Prodigal Son” (Luke 15:11-32). By giving them these titles, Bible editors have unknowingly caused Christians throughout time to have the wrong focus, which is now placed on what was lost (the sheep, the coin and the two sons), and not on Jesus. Here in these three parables, we see Jesus pictured as the Good Shepherd (Luke 15:4-7), the Rejoicing Woman (Luke 15:8-10), and the Compassionate Father (Luke 15:11-33). This week we will study the parable of The Rejoicing Shepherd, and next week, we will look at the parable of The Rejoicing Woman (Luke 15:8-10) and then the following week the parable of The Compassionate Father (Luke 15:11-33).

What we will study this morning in The Rejoicing Shepherd …01. Contrasting Classes (Luke 15:1-2); 02. What is a Parable (Luke 15:3); and 03. The Good Shepherd (Luke 15:4-7).

01. Contrasting Classes (Luke 15:1-2)

Luke 15:1–2 Too often when we study parables, we see it through Western eyes. But in order to make sure that we are getting a proper understanding of the parables, we need to realize that the Middle Eastern culture is different than ours, so therefore we need to look at these parables with Middle Eastern eyes to properly understand these parables. As we study this parable today, and the second and third in the weeks to follow, I will do my best to bring our Western minds to the Middle East, so that we may better understand what Jesus is saying here in these three parables.

Luke 15:1 The tax collectors and the sinners who all drew near to Him are the “the poor, the maimed, the lame, the blind” that Jesus mentioned who to invite in Luke 14:13 and Luke 14:21. At the time of Jesus, tax collectors were seen as sinners by the Jews, for they were Jews working in cooperation with Rome, which was seen as being unfaithful to their race and their religion. The way that the tax system was set up in Israel at this time was that the Romans would hire Jews to collect taxes throughout the land, because they knew the land, customs and people. A person would buy the rights to collect taxes in a region, and they in turn could charge any amount, for contractually he was bound to collect a certain amount, anything beyond that was bonus. The Jewish tax collectors usually reported directly to Gentiles; they collected taxes so that their superiors wouldn’t have to work. The main requirement that the tax collectors had to fulfill was to collect the taxes from the people. Because the tax collectors usually would collect more than what was required by Rome, they would make life extremely difficult especially for the poor. They would place a tax on all exports and imports and all that was bought and sold. They would charge a tax to cross a bridge, to go on a road, to go into the harbor, entering and leaving town, the number of axels on a cart, how many animals you were using etc. To make matters worse, they could stop the traveler, make them unpack all of their goods, impose a tax on them for all that they had, and of course charge them more than what was required by Rome. It’s not hard to see why the Jews despised the tax collectors for all the physical and financial hardships that they placed on people, and that they were Jews working for Gentiles. The Rabbis taught that repentance was nearly impossible for a tax collector. Tax collectors were also banned from being judges, witnesses and from worshipping in the synagogue.[1]

Luke 15:1 “Then all the tax collectors and the sinners drew near to Him to hear Him.” Why did the tax collectors and sinners come to Him? It was probably in response to Jesus’ final command at the end of the previous chapter: “He who has ears to hear, let him [hear]!” (Luke 14:35) These are whom Jesus was speaking about in (Luke 13:30) when He said, “And [indeed] there are last who will be first, and there are first who will be last.”

Remember, the Jewish people considered themselves to be first in every way, but they would be last, that is, they would be left out of the kingdom. In contrast, some Gentiles, considered last, would be in the kingdom and would really be first in importance^[2]…because they had “ears to hear” (Luke 14:35)!

Luke 15:2 Dr. Luke records for us the criticism faced by Jesus from the religious elite for welcoming tax collectors and sinners and eating with them.

Luke 15:2 “And the Pharisees and scribes complained,” G1234 διαγογγύζω diagŏgguzō, dee-a-gong-good´-zo. The Greek word for “complained” is written in the imperfect which suggests that it was a continuous, normal action by the Pharisees and scribes, which is what they normally did whenever they come in contact with Jesus. As the publicans and the sinners were drawing near to Jesus just in that proportion the Pharisees and the scribes increased their murmurings.^[3] This complaining by the Pharisees and scribes imitates the attitude and actions by the Israelites in the desert, where they too saw the signs of God’s presence, saw His miracles yet they still did not believe In fact, complained is the same word used in the Greek Old Testament for the repeated “murmuring” of the people against Moses and Aaron in the wilderness (Exodus 15:24; Exodus 16:2; Exodus 16:7–8; Exodus 17:3; Numbers 14:2; Numbers 16:11). It appears only twice in the New Testament, here and in Luke 19:7. Both times it is in the mouth of Pharisees complaining against Jesus. It is either “murmuring among themselves” or “murmuring through the crowd.” We get the clear picture of an undercurrent of discontented complaining about Jesus’ actions. These rumblings eventually crescendo in the events of the Passion.^[4]

Back in Luke 5:29–32 (cf. Matthew 9:11), we see the same religious elite raising this same condemnation towards Jesus. As the one class (the sinners) drew near, so the other (the religious elite) stood off and found fault.^[5]

The Pharisees and scribes stand in a direct contrast from the tax collectors and the sinners, for they rejected the teaching and baptism of John, which was a call to repentance: “Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand!” (Matthew 3:2; cf. Luke 7:29).

Luke 15:2 “This Man receives sinners and eats with them.” Is written in the present tense, meaning that the charge here is that this is the habit of Jesus. He shows no sense of social superiority to these outcasts.^[6] Jesus regularly welcomed sinners into fellowship, accepting them as a friend.^[7] To eat with another person in the Mideast is a sacramental act signifying acceptance on a very deep level.^[8] This complaint by the Pharisees and scribes that “This Man receives sinners and eats with them”, was their way of calling Jesus unclean and a traitor to the nation of Israel.

02. What is a Parable (Luke 15:3)

Luke 15:3 Here we see Jesus answering the complaint of the Pharisees and the scribes, and the three parables that follow here in Luke 15:4-32 consist of the response by Jesus to the Pharisees and scribes to their accusation that “This Man receives sinners and eats with them.” (Luke 15:2) The noun used here that is translated as “parable” is G3850 παραβολῆς (paraboles) and is the genitive, singular, feminine version of παραβολή (parabŏlē). The Greek word (G3850) παραβολή (parabŏlē) comes from (G3846) παραβαλλω (paraballō) to throw alongside (From παρά [G3844], beside, and βάλλω [G906], to throw^[9]), to place alongside for measurement or comparison like a yardstick. ^[10] A parable is a form of teaching that Jesus often used in which one thing is thrown beside another,^[11] as a physical illustration of a spiritual truth. Most of the time, Jesus used parables to illustrate one main point and the details are secondary. For some of the parables, Jesus does explain the secondary details, but when He doesn’t, we need to be careful in interpreting those details. As a rule, when the Bible is silent, we are to be silent. So if we don’t have any interpretation of the details, whether from Jesus or the rest Scripture, we are to remain silent. There have been many false teachings that come from false interpretations of parables. Contrary to what is being taught in most churches today, parables were not given by Jesus to make it easy for the people to hear and know what He was talking about. In Luke 8:10, Jesus explained to the apostles why He taught in parables to the people before He answered the apostles and told them the meaning of the parable of the Sower. Jesus tells His apostles that the parables He uses are open to them, but shut to the Pharisees with their antagonistic hearts. Depending on whether one is open to hearing what Jesus teaches will reveal whether His words are revealed or concealed by His hearers (cf. Luke 8:10).

The unregenerate in heart cannot discern what Jesus is teaching, because the “the natural man does not receive the things of the Spirit of God, for they are foolishness to him; nor can he know them, because they are spiritually discerned.” (1 Corinthians 2:14) “Because the carnal mind is enmity against God; for it is not subject to the law of God, nor indeed can be.” (Romans 8:7) In support of this, Jesus quoted from Isaiah 6:9 in Luke 8:10, “Seeing they may not see, And hearing they may not understand.” (Luke 8:10; cf. Isaiah 6:9-10; Isaiah 43:8; Jeremiah 5:21; Ezekiel 12:2; Matthew 13:14; Mark 4:12; John 12:40; Romans 11:8) The parables of Jesus accomplished this very feat, to hide the truth from the people with hearts that “have grown dull” and who’s spiritual “ears are hard of hearing” (Matthew 13:15; cf. Mark 4:10-12; Isaiah 6:10). By speaking in parables, Jesus was actually being very gracious to His hearers. For if they rejected His claim as the Messiah, the Son of God, then their judgment won’t be as bad if they had understood more (Matthew 11:20–22; Luke 10:13–15; 1 Timothy 4:2).

1 Timothy 4:2 “seared with a hot iron,” G2743 καυτηριάζω kautēriazō, kŏw-tay-ree-ad´-zo; from a der. of 2545; to brand (“cauterize”), i.e. (by impl.) to render unsensitive (fig.):—sear with a hot iron.^[12] Whose souls are branded with the marks of sin, i.e. they are those who carry about with them the perpetual consciousness of sin.^[13]

03. The Good Shepherd (Luke 15:4-7)

Luke 15:4–7 Jesus used this same parable to teach a different lesson in Matthew 18:12-14. This parable that we will study today is similar as it is done in a chiastic structure. A chiasm or chiastic structure is common in oral traditions, as it helps the memorization of it, and the way that it works is in a pattern of A-B-C…C-B-A. A sandwich can best explain it, where you place a piece of bread on top (A), then some mustard (B), a piece of meat (C), then another piece of meat (C), some more mustard (B) and finally another piece of bread on the bottom (A). It is the repetition of similar ideas in a reverse order. In this parable, we see the Shepherd has (A) one who is lost; (B) the Shepherd seeking to find that which is lost; (C) the Shepherd rejoices; (C) the Shepherd tells people to “Rejoice with me”; (B) because he found (A) that which is lost.

Luke 15:4 “What man of you, having a hundred sheep,” Throughout Scripture, Jesus is often pictured as a Shepherd or the Good Shepherd because He shows compassion and care for His people (Psalm 23:1; Psalm 80:1; Isaiah 40:10-11; John 10:11; John 10:14; Hebrews 13:20; 1 Peter 2:25; 1 Peter 5:4), for He as He said that He “has come to seek and to save that which was lost.” (Luke 19:10) Once Jesus mentioned that this man has sheep, thus making him a shepherd, immediately the Pharisees would’ve already cast judgment, for shepherds were considered unclean by the religious leaders, who often referred to the shepherds as “people of the land”^[14] and made sure to avoid them. A flock of “100 sheep” was fairly common for a small farmer.[15] The phrase “if he loses” can be translated as “having lost” is written in the active aorist participle, thus implying that the shepherd is responsible for the loss of the sheep. The Pharisees hearing that Jesus is calling them shepherds that have lost the sheep of Israel would have been offended at both being called a shepherd, as well as being accused of causing the people to wander away from God (1 Peter 2:25). This just repeats what Jesus had already accused them of in His woes back in Luke 11:52, “Woe to you lawyers! For you have taken away the key of knowledge. You did not enter in yourselves, and those who were entering in you hindered.”

Luke 15:4 “does not” (G3756) Οὐ is the interrogative word that expects an affirmative answer. Even if these men do not say “yes,” their thoughts cannot help but do so. That is enough, for the rest follows automatically and is affirmed by that first “yes”; hence the interrogative form is now dropped.^[16]

Luke 15:4 “leave the ninety-nine in the wilderness” (ἐν τῃ ἐρημῳ [en tēi erēmōi]). Their usual pasturage, not a place of danger or peril. It is the owner of the hundred sheep who cares so much for the one that is lost. He knows each one of the sheep and loves each one.^[17]

Luke 15:4 “and go after the one which is lost until he finds it?” Any good shepherd will go to find the sheep that has strayed. If any of these scribes and Pharisees had as many as a hundred sheep, and one of them strayed, he would never think that one doesn’t matter because he still has ninety-nine left. He would never think that the effort and time that it will take to find the lost sheep isn’t worth it. There is nothing more helpless than a lost sheep except a lost sinner. The sheep went off by its own ignorance and folly^[18] (1 Peter 2:25).

In his book, A Shepherd Looks at Psalm 23, Phillip Keller explains: The way it happens is this. A heavy, fat, or long fleeced sheep will lie down comfortably in some little hollow or depression in the ground. It may roll on its side slightly to stretch out or relax. Suddenly the center of gravity in the body shifts so that it turns on its back far enough that the feet no longer touch the ground. It may feel a sense of panic and start to paw frantically. Frequently this only makes things worse. It rolls over even further. Now it is quite impossible for it to regain its feet. As it lies there struggling, gases begin to build up in the rumen. As these expand they tend to retard and cut off blood circulation to the extremities of the body, especially the legs. If the weather is very hot and sunny a cast sheep can die in a few hours. If it is cool and cloudy and rainy it may survive in this position for several days.[19]

The ninety-nine sheep were left in the wilderness, perhaps with an under-shepherd and quite likely in a cave. Yet was it wise to leave the ninety-nine and wander away searching for the one?...Does the lost individual matter or are “the people” alone important? Indeed, it is the shepherd’s willingness to go after the one that gives the ninety-nine their real security. If the one is sacrificed in the name of the larger good of the group, then each individual in the group is insecure, knowing that he or she too is of little value. If lost, he or she will be left to die. When the shepherd pays a high price to find the one, he thereby offers the profoundest security to the many. ^[20]

Luke 15:4 “until he finds it?” (ἑως εὑρῃ αὐτο [heōs heurēi auto]). Second aorist active subjunctive of εὑρισκω [heuriskō], common verb, with ἑως [heōs], common Greek idiom. He keeps on going (πορευεται [poreuetai], linear present middle indicative) until success comes (effective aorist, εὑρῃ [heurēi]).^[21] Jesus does not mention how long the shepherd spends searching for the lost sheep, but usually [a]fter two days the animal is presumed to be stolen or killed and eaten by wild animals.^[22] Lost is a synonym for those who are unbelievers, yet we see that the Good Shepherd goes after the lost like a shepherd who has lost his sheep (Ezekiel 34:16; Jeremiah 23:1–8; Jeremiah 50:6; Isaiah 6:5).

Luke 15:5 After finding the lost sheep the shepherd’s hardest job was still before him because he had yet to carry the heavy beast back to the flock.^[23] An adult sheep can weigh more than 100 pounds. The shepherd takes up his heavy burden “rejoicing” and accepts this backbreaking task happily. It would be natural for the shepherd to secretly hope to find the animal dead or devoured by a lion. When the lost is found, the task of restoration has barely begun.^[24]

Luke 15:5 “he lays it on his shoulders, rejoicing.” He laid it on his shoulders. The Middle Eastern shepherd has always carried a sheep over his two shoulders with its stomach against the back of his neck and all four feet tied together in front of his face. This gives him full control of the animal and still leaves one hand free for climbing.^[25]

In many of our western pictures, the Good Shepherd is often depicted as carrying the sheep in the crook of his arm, or if the sheep is on the shoulders of the shepherd, in both cases it is usually a small lamb. But when we see pictures of a shepherd that are more realistic we can see that the price paid by the Good Shepherd here in this parable to save His lost sheep.

Luke 15:6 The shepherd returns to the village and rejoices with the community. This is understandable in light of the fact that…the flock is quite possibly partly owned by those same “friends and neighbors.”^[26] In this culture, joy is usually shared in the community by inviting friends and neighbors into your home to rejoice over a meal. The Pharisees, as religious leaders, were indeed the “shepherds of Israel.” Thus it is easy to see that in this parable Jesus is holding them responsible for any “sheep” (read: person) that is lost from the community.^[27]

Luke 15:6 “Rejoice with me, for I have found my sheep which was lost!’”

There are only two commands in this pericope of Luke 15:1-10, and both commands are the same, to rejoice, seen here in Luke 15:6 and repeated in Luke 15:9. This shows us the main theme of this chapter, which is the theme of joy, which culminates at Luke 15:23-24 and Luke 15:32.

Luke 15:6 “for I have found my sheep which was lost!” In connection to the theme of joy, we see the theme of losing and finding in this chapter (cf. Luke 15:9; Luke 15:24, Luke 15:32).

In this parable, Jesus defends His welcoming of sinners, showing that He, the Good Shepherd is willing to pay the price for all that are lost. As I mentioned before, this parable speaks of Christ. Jesus is often pictured as a Shepherd towards His people throughout Scripture, as He shows compassion and care for His people for He is the Good Shepherd (Psalm 23:1; Psalm 80:1; Isaiah 40:10-11; John 10:11; John 10:14; Hebrews 13:20; 1 Peter 2:25; 1 Peter 5:4) who comes “to seek and to save that which was lost” (Luke 19:10). Throughout the Gospels, we see Jesus showing compassion on lost sinners (Matthew 9:36; Mark 6:34). He came to call tax collectors and sinners to repentance (Luke 5:32; cf. Matthew 1:21; Matthew 9:13; Matthew 18:11; Matthew 20:28; Mark 2:17; Luke 19:10; Acts 5:31; 1 Timothy 1:15) and on His shoulders He bore the full burden of the lost sinners restoration to God by laying His life down for them (John 10:11; cf. Isaiah 53:4-6; Ephesians 5:2; Titus 2:14; 1 Peter 2:24-25). This parable of the Rejoicing Shepherd ought to call to remembrance these passages of Jesus as the Good Shepherd in Psalm 23:1–6. Just as Jesus is at the heart of Psalm 23:1–6, so too is He at the heart of the parable about the Rejoicing Shepherd.

Luke 15:7 “I say to you all” λέγω ὑμι̂ν (lĕgō humin) This phrase is spoken numerous times by Jesus throughout Dr. Luke’s Gospel, and what it means is that He is speaking authoritatively as the Word of God in flesh (Luke 4:24-25; 6:27; 7:9, 26, 28; 9:27; 10:12, 24; 11:8, 9, 51; 12:4, 5, 8, 22, 27, 37, 44, 51; 13:3, 5, 24, 35; 14:24; 15:7, 10; 16:9; 17:34; 18:8, 14, 17, 29; 19:26, 40; 20:8; 21:3, 32; 22:16, 18, 37).

Luke 15:7 “that likewise there will be more joy in heaven over one sinner who repents” (ἐπι ἑνι ἁμαρτωλῳ μετανοουντι [epi heni hamartōlōi metanoounti]). The word sinner points to Luke 15:1. Repenting is what these sinners were doing, these lost sheep brought to the fold. The joy in heaven is in contrast with the grumbling Pharisees and scribes.^[28]

Luke 15:7 “than over ninety-nine just persons who need no repentance.” (οἱτινες οὐ χρειαν ἐχουσιν μετανοιας [hoitines ou chreian echousin metanoias]). Jesus does not mean to say that the Pharisees and the scribes do not need repentance or are perfect. He for the sake of argument accepts their claims about themselves and by their own words condemns them for their criticism of his efforts to save the lost sheep. It is the same point that he made against them when they criticized Jesus and the disciples for being at Levi’s feast (Luke 5:31-32). They posed as “righteous.” Very well, then. That shuts their mouths on the point of Christ’s saving the publicans and sinners.^[29] Jesus’ subtle humor is evident in this verse. The “righteous” who “need no repentance” do not exist.^[30] Only those who are sinners are those who are in need of repentance and the Rabbis taught that repentance was nearly impossible for the tax collectors. Jesus speaking directly at the Pharisees is essentially saying that those who are only righteous on the outside are not whom He came for, but to the sinners, those who recognize that they are sinners in need of a Saviour.

The Greek word for “repentance” is (G3341) μετάνοια mĕtanŏia, met-an´-oy-ah and it literally means a change of mind.^[31] Repentance is not being sorry that you were caught, that is a false repentance. True repentance, as found throughout Scripture is an active response after one has been confronted with their sin, causing them to become contrite and putting their trust in Jesus (Matthew 3:2; Matthew 12:41; Mark 1:4; Mark 1:15; Luke 3:8; Luke 10:13; Luke 15:10; Luke 17:3; Luke 24:47; Acts 2:38; Acts 3:19; Acts 5:31; Acts 11:18; Acts 17:30; Acts 26:20; Romans 2:4; 2 Corinthians 7:9; 2 Timothy 2:25; Hebrews 6:6; 2 Peter 3:9). In Acts 3:17, Peter acknowledges that those there in the crowd that day contributed to the death of Jesus ignorantly, “Yet now, brethren, I know that you did it in ignorance, as did also your rulers.” But Peter in Acts 3:19 called them to “Repent therefore and be converted, that your sins may be blotted out, so that times of refreshing may come from the presence of the Lord,” (Acts 3:19).

2 Corinthians 7:8–9 Paul’s harsh letter had hurt them. It had hurt Paul too. He had not relished his role as a disciplinarian, and in fact he apparently had wished he had not sent it with Titus. Yet because of the results his regret was softened. In sorrow the Corinthians acknowledged their failure and redressed the wrong.^[32]

2 Corinthians 7:10–11 They had exemplified repentance, a change of mind involving action in accord with God’s will. As such it was a godly sorrow (like Peter’s remorse after his denial of Christ). This was not a worldly sorrow which brings death (like Judas’ “sorrow” after he betrayed the Lord; Matthew 27:3–5). The Corinthians’ genuine sorrow … produced several things: (a) a diligence or concerted effort to make amends, (b) an eagerness to vindicate themselves, (c) indignation against Paul’s opponent (2 Corinthians 2:5–11), (d) alarm at their own passivity and its injurious effects (2 Corinthians 2:1–4), (e) longing and concern for Paul (2 Corinthians 7:7), and (f) readiness to see justice done (2 Corinthians 2:6).^[33] Paul writes that Jesus died to reconcile the ungodly, the sinners to God (Romans 5:6-10). Rejoice is the same word in Hebrews 12:2. Jesus was rejoicing on His way to the cross because He was carrying our sins like the shepherd here in our text this morning.

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[1] cf. Alfred Edersheim, The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah [Peabody; Hendrickson, 1993], Bk 03, Ch 17, p351-58, 1.507-19

^[2] Martin, J. A. (1985). Luke. In J. F. Walvoord & R. B. Zuck (Eds.), The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures (Vol. 2, p. 241). Wheaton, IL: Victor Books.

^[3] Robertson, A. T. (1933). Word Pictures in the New Testament (Lk 15:2). Nashville, TN: Broadman Press.

^[4] Bailey, K. E. (2005). The Cross and the Prodigal: Luke 15 through the Eyes of Middle Eastern Peasants (Second Edition, p. 28). Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books.

^[5] Lenski, R. C. H. (1961). The Interpretation of St. Luke’s Gospel (p. 794). Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Publishing House.

^[6] Robertson, A. T. (1933). Word Pictures in the New Testament (Lk 15:2). Nashville, TN: Broadman Press.

^[7] Bailey, K. E. (2005). The Cross and the Prodigal: Luke 15 through the Eyes of Middle Eastern Peasants (Second Edition, pp. 28–29). Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books.

^[8] Bailey, K. E. (2005). The Cross and the Prodigal: Luke 15 through the Eyes of Middle Eastern Peasants (Second Edition, p. 29). Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books.

^[9] Vincent, M. R. (1887). Word studies in the New Testament (Vol. 1, p. 74). New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.

^[10] Robertson, A. T. (1933). Word Pictures in the New Testament (Mt 13:3). Nashville, TN: Broadman Press.

^[11] Vincent, M. R. (1887). Word studies in the New Testament (Vol. 1, p. 74). New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.

^[12] Strong, J. (2009). A Concise Dictionary of the Words in the Greek Testament and The Hebrew Bible (Vol. 1, p. 41). Bellingham, WA: Logos Bible Software.

^[13] Thayer, J. H. (1889). A Greek-English lexicon of the New Testament: being Grimm’s Wilke's Clavis Novi Testamenti (p. 342). New York: Harper & Brothers.

^[14] Bailey, K. E. (2005). The Cross and the Prodigal: Luke 15 through the Eyes of Middle Eastern Peasants (Second Edition, p. 30). Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books.

[15] Jeremias, The Parables . . ., p. 133.

^[16] Lenski, R. C. H. (1961). The Interpretation of St. Luke’s Gospel (pp. 797–798). Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Publishing House.

^[17] Robertson, A. T. (1933). Word Pictures in the New Testament (Lk 15:4). Nashville, TN: Broadman Press.

^[18] Robertson, A. T. (1933). Word Pictures in the New Testament (Lk 15:4). Nashville, TN: Broadman Press.

[19] Keller, Phillip (1970) A Shepherd Looks At Psalm 23 (pp. 61– 62). Grand Rapids: Zondervan.

^[20] Bailey, K. E. (2005). The Cross and the Prodigal: Luke 15 through the Eyes of Middle Eastern Peasants (Second Edition, p. 31). Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books.

^[21] Robertson, A. T. (1933). Word Pictures in the New Testament (Lk 15:4). Nashville, TN: Broadman Press.

^[22] Bailey, K. E. (2005). The Cross and the Prodigal: Luke 15 through the Eyes of Middle Eastern Peasants (Second Edition). Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books.

^[23] Bailey, K. E. (2005). The Cross and the Prodigal: Luke 15 through the Eyes of Middle Eastern Peasants (Second Edition, p. 31). Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books.

^[24] Bailey, K. E. (2005). The Cross and the Prodigal: Luke 15 through the Eyes of Middle Eastern Peasants (Second Edition, pp. 31–32). Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books.

^[25] Bailey, K. E. (2005). The Cross and the Prodigal: Luke 15 through the Eyes of Middle Eastern Peasants (Second Edition, p. 32). Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books.

^[26] Bailey, K. E. (2005). The Cross and the Prodigal: Luke 15 through the Eyes of Middle Eastern Peasants (Second Edition, p. 32). Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books.

^[27] Bailey, K. E. (2005). The Cross and the Prodigal: Luke 15 through the Eyes of Middle Eastern Peasants (Second Edition, p. 33). Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books.

^[28] Robertson, A. T. (1933). Word Pictures in the New Testament (Lk 15:7). Nashville, TN: Broadman Press.

^[29] Robertson, A. T. (1933). Word Pictures in the New Testament (Lk 15:7). Nashville, TN: Broadman Press.

^[30] Bailey, K. E. (2005). The Cross and the Prodigal: Luke 15 through the Eyes of Middle Eastern Peasants (Second Edition, p. 33). Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books.

^[31] Arndt, W., Danker, F. W., Bauer, W., & Gingrich, F. W. (2000). A Greek-English lexicon of the New Testament and other early Christian literature (3rd ed., p. 640). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

^[32] Lowery, D. K. (1985). 2 Corinthians. In J. F. Walvoord & R. B. Zuck (Eds.), The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures (Vol. 2, p. 572). Wheaton, IL: Victor Books.

^[33] Lowery, D. K. (1985). 2 Corinthians. In J. F. Walvoord & R. B. Zuck (Eds.), The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures (Vol. 2, p. 572). Wheaton, IL: Victor Books.